Research Methodology

What You Will Learn

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Background Information

Describes what is known about the topic from previous studies
Maximum of 2 Pages
E.g. Sickle cell disease— what SCD is; pathophysiology; clinical features; management

Statement of problems from previous study

A well-written problem statement defines the problem and helps identify the variables that will be investigated in the study
Problem statement is specific statement of the exact gap in the knowledge you will study. The gap in knowledge is the nerve centre for your study.
Examples of format of writing problem statements:

This study is designed to determine the emergency response of locals to convulsion episodes

NOTE: It is also acceptable to limit this section to a statement of the problem which leads up to, but does not include the actual purpose of the study. In this case, an additional section entitled Rationale/Purpose(s) of the Study would follow that is restricted to simply stating the specific purpose(s) of the study.

Rationale

Basis or Justification or purpose of the research
It is a Follow-up of the statement of problem

Research Questions

Questions you seek to provide answers to during this study, are stated in this section

Objectives

Divided into General and Specific objectives

General objectives

Aim of the study in general terms

Specific objectives

It is a breakdown of the General objectives into smaller and logically connected specific tasks.

For example—

General objective: “To assess missed opportunities for NPI in Ilorin”
Specific objective:

To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities for children who attend OPD, etc. in Ilorin
To examine the reasons for children not be immunized while attending OPD, etc

NOTE: all Subsequent activities and write-up must be in line with the specific objectives

Hypothesis

It specifies the relationship btw one variable and another
Null and alternative hypothesis
Examples

Null Hypothesis: Education has NO influence on acceptance of family planning among couples.
Alternative (primary) Hypothesis: Education has influence on acceptance of family planning among couples.

Here you read and bring out information from previous published scientifically sound documents/research
There is no use of dictionary, mass media, newspaper, magazines or Wikipedia, as source of information
Main Source of information:

Standard Textbook
Scientific Journals

Referencing to be used here in UITH is the Vancouver style

Purpose of Literature Review

To know the level of knowledge as far as the topic is concerned
To know about previous studies and their finding
To help identify any knowledge gap
Help set our own methodology
Gives us Basis of comparison with previous study (which will be done in Discussion)

Referencing

Process

In-text citation and Reference list

Component of a reference in Reference list

Name of author
Year of publication
Title
Name of Journal or texbooks
Relevant pages
Edition
Vol. no.

All these are arranged in a scientific manner depending on the referencing style

Vancouver Referencing Style

A numbered referencing style consisting of

In-text citation, indicated by a use of Number
A sequentially numbered Reference List at the end of the document providing full details of the corresponding in-text reference

In-text citations

A number is allocated to a source in the order in which it is cited in the text. If the source is referred to again, the same number is used
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3…) are used
Use round bracket ( ) or square bracket [ ] to enclose the number in-text, but be consistent with one
OR Superscripts can also be use rather than brackets
The reference number is placed to the left of or inside of colons and semi-colons; BUT placed to the right of or outside of full stops
For secondary citation (citing an author’s work referenced by another author’s work which you have read), citing both authors after the statement.

The preferred method is to list each reference number separated by a comma, or by a dash for a sequence of consecutive no. There should be no spaces between commas and dashes
E.g. (1, 5, 6-8)

Reference list

Some rules

References are listed in numerical order, and in the same order in which they are cited in text.
Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 …)
Only the first word of the article title and words that normally begin with a capital letter are capitalized.
Abbreviate journal titles
Consistent with referencing style across the document

For Journal articles

For < 6 authors, give all authors' names and separate each by a comma and a space; for > 6 authors, list first 6 followed by ‘et al.’
After journal title (abbreviated), abbreviated month (first 3 letters) followed with semi-colon
Example: Petitti DB, Crooks VC, Buckwalter JG, Chiu V, et al. Blood pressure levels before dementia. Arch Neurol. 2005 Jan; 62(1):112-6.
For electronic journals

Author AA, Author BB. Title of article. Abbreviated title of Journal [Internet]. Date of publication YYYY MM [cited YYYY Mon DD]; volume number (issue number): page numbers. Available from: URL
Example: Stockhausen L, Turale S. An explorative study of Australian nursing scholars and contemporary scholarship. J Nurs Scholarsh [Internet]. 2011 Mar [cited 2013 Feb 19]; 43(1):89-96. Available from: (URL)

For books

Printed book

Author AA. Title of book. # edition [if not first]. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year of publication. Pagination.
Example: Carlson BM. Human embryology and developmental biology. 4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 2009. 541 p.

Edited book

Author AA, Author BB. Title of chapter. In: Editor AA, Editor BB, editors. Title of book. # edition. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year of publication. p. [page numbers of chapter].
E.g.: Blaxter PS, Farnsworth TP. Social health and class inequalities. In: Carter C, Peel JR, editors. Equalities and inequalities in health. 2nd ed. London: Academic Press; 1976. p. 165-78.

Note

Referencing usually starts from background information [where it be cited as (1) ] and may end at Discussion (where it may also be cited as, say, (300) ).
Cross-referencing is NOT allowed i.e. everything cited have been read by you

This is the “CNS” of the study
Before reporting, a research proposal is made where you describe how the work is to be carried out (future tense). When reporting the methodology you describe how the work was carried out (past tense)

Subsection of Methodology

Description of study area
Study design
Sample calculation or Estimation
Sampling technique
Method of Data collection
Method of Data analysis
Method of Data presentation
Method of Data Dissemination

Description of Study Area

Involves relevant descriptions (usually not >1 page), which include:

Location of study
Social amenities especially the

Health facilities
Access to mass media
Climatic factors
Other environmental factors
Water supply
Administrative settings etc.

Study Design

Situate the research in relation to time

You could do

Descriptive cross-sectional study or
Retrospective study, or
Prospective study

The one done here for comm-health students is Descriptive Cross-sectional study (different from Analytical Cross-sectional study)

Cross-Sectional Study

It is a prevalence study; it measures prevalence rather than incidence
Usually involve collection of NEW Data
Provides information concerning the study at the point of data collection
Not good for study of rare disease or diseases with short duration; also not ideal for study of rare exposures

Two types

Descriptive
Analytic

In descriptive cross-sectional study the information collected is purely descriptive; it does NOT compare variables or groups of individuals

A cross-sectional study may have both descriptive and analytical components

Sample Size Determination/Sampling

Sampling involves selection of proportion of a Population (sample) to serve as a representative of the population of the study

Reason for sampling

Time factor
Cost
Logistics

Factors considered in sampling

Total population
Level of precision
Previous similar study that have been done

All these factors are put in Fisher’s formula, to determine sample size. After this non-response rate, usually estimated to be 10% of the calc. sample size, is added to the sample size to give the actual sample size. The 10% is used for Pre-testing

Non-response = % of the sample that fail to participate in the study or whose questionnaire was discarded for improper filling
Attrition or drop-out = initially cooperative sample member that drops out of the study before the study ends
Pre-test – involves administering your instrument, for e.g. 10% of your questionnaire to identify ambiguity; done in another community
Pilot test – pretest is analyzed to determine possible accuracy of the study

Sampling Technique

Refers to How to select sample of target population.
2 Techniques are used— Probability or Non-probability method
Non-probability sampling— respondents have no chance of selections, or the probability of their selection cannot be accurately determined. Types includes:

Convenience sampling e.g. sampling amongst Okada drivers. It is most common type used – not because such samples are necessarily easy to recruit, but because the researcher uses whatever individuals are available rather than selecting from the entire population.
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling

Probability sampling = the one used by 500L comm. Health students. Respondents have a chance of being selected. The various subtypes include:

Simple random sampling
Systematic random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling, etc.

Simple-random techniques

Applies to relatively small no. of units e.g. sample sampling 7 out of 16 people.
Each respondent has Equal chance of being selected
Methods

Ballot
Table of random numbers
Computer-generated random numbers - from a set of numbers.

Systematic random sampling (SRS)

Each respondent has a calculated chance of been chosen based on Sampling Frame, Sample Size and Sampling Interval

Sampling frame (a representative of the population). E.g. to assess the knowledge attitude and practice of condom use among Medical students. However, you can’t access all medical students in Nigeria; so you decide to use UNILORIN medical student that are, say, 600 in no. This is your sample frame
Sample size is determined using Fisher’s formula.
Sampling interval = sample frame/sample size

E.g. considering the 600L students for the e.g. above, as sample frame; assuming 150 is the sample sized calculated; Sample interval = 600/150= 4
Next I’ll list these 600L level students as 1, 2, 3, 4 ...599, 600. To issue out questionnaire to 150 students, Systematic Random Sampling will involve, initially randomly selecting the first student, say no. 5, and then selecting subsequent students at interval of 4 (systematic selection). Thus, students with no. 9, 13, 17, etc., will receive questionnaire, until I’ve reached the 150th student.

Stratified Sampling

Sample frame is organized into strata, each stratum containing elements with similar characteristics. Then a sample is taken from each strata based on the SRC method (i.e. sampling at specific interval)
First step: proportion allocation e.g. 600 ILUMSITE med students (sample frame), divided into strata of 100 level students, 200 level students, etc. are to be allocated 150 questionnaires (150 being the sample size). Assuming no. of

100L students = 160;
200L = 130;
300L = 120;
400L = 100;
500L = 70;
600L = 60

(All this summing up to 600).
The Proportion of 100L students that will receive the questionnaire = (160/600) x 150= 40
Second step: determining sampling interval = sample frame/sample size= 600/150= 4
Next, the systematic random selection, i.e. for the 100L students numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 …150, I want to issue out 40 questionnaire; I randomly select a student’s number, say number 5, (simple random sampling) then at every interval of 4 students I give a questionnaire. In this case students 9, 13, 17, etc., will be selected until I get up to 40 students.

Cluster sampling

The population is divided into clusters of homogeneous population units such as wards, classes of a school and villages within a LGA. The sampling units are the clusters and the sampling frame is a list of these clusters rather than individual subjects.
A simple random sample of such clusters is then selected. ALL the units in the selected clusters are then examined.

Instrument and Method for Data Collection

Interview method
Focus-Group discussion (FGD)
Observational method
Key-informant interviews (KII)

Interview method

Instrument used = Questionnaire
2 types of questionnaire

Open-ended = respondent is at liberty to provide answers the way he understands the question; it is difficult to analyse
Close-ended = there may be room for multiple response

It is the one 500L comm. Health student use (Advise— use close-ended questionnaire).
NB: Questions must be numbered serially and the numbering must be continuous
Responses must be PRE-CODED before going to the field, for ease of analysis.
Questionnaire may be interviewer-administered (questions are read to respondent and responses recorded by researcher) OR self-administered (respondent completes or answers it himself).

Focus-Group discussion (FGD)

Instrument used = FGD guide
The guide supports questionnaire, but does not replace it.
A subset of the population, not more than 10 People in a group, are taken for further discussion on the topic of research, for qualitative judgment. Discussions are recorded/documented, based on agreement with respondents, with a tape recorder or video recorder. The recorded document is later transcribed/translated for Analysis.

Observational method

Instrument used = Checklist
The checklist is used to assess if a particular activity is being performed or not. You observe and then tick on the checklist

Key-informant interviews (KII)

Instrument used = KII Guide
Relevant stakeholder are asked further questions using the KII guide
It also supports questionnaire

Methods of Data Analysis

Use of computer software e.g. Excel, EPI-info, SPSS, STATCAL, etc

Methods of data presentation

Prose Form – for <3 variables

For Bivariate information/variables i.e. response that are dichotomous e.g. Yes/No variables; male/female variable, attendance/non-attendance variables. These variables are tabulated

Tables

Used for >5 variables, variables that occur in frequency
Frequency and Percentages are tabulate, + foot notes under the table
It should be properly labeled

Charts

Bar charts, Pie charts, Histogram, Frequency polygon, etc…
Bar charts

For discrete variables;
Bases are separate; the height of the bar tells the magnitude of the variables

Histograms

For continuous variables
Bases are continuous; area of the bars tells the magnitude of the variable

Frequency polygon

The mid points of the bars of histograms are joined
Unimodal; Polymodal; dumb

Pie chart

Sectors represents magnitude of variables
For at least 3 variables by not more than 5 variable, i.e. 3, 4 or 5 variables

Methods of Dissemination of Results

The method of dissemination of findings is usually included in proposals.

Relevant people/places where the project work should be taken to include:

Community members
Project sponsors
Ministry of health
Examiner
University, or UNICEF, if you have grants from them
Publications in reputable journals

The results describe the findings or outcome of the research. They are organized into specific sections based on the specific objective.
The descriptive or demographic findings are presented first before the cross-tabulation (i.e. before the charts or tables or prose).
The descriptive following a chart or table should only contain highlights with important findings and the same method should be used throughout (i.e. do not use > 1 type of method to present a variable) and should not be repetitive
Bivariate variables are grouped into a table
Results should be devoid of interpretation and discussion; only the data is presented
The descriptive (e.g. Knowledge, Attitude and Practice, KAP) are presented before the cross-tabulations. The descriptive are also scored and classified (good/excellent, etc.) depending on the study design. Also conclusion & recommendations are not included in this chapter

This chapter interprets the results, Compares the findings from previous studies, and describes the implications of findings on the study population and policy formulation.
It uses experience in scientific reasoning

Conclusion

An overall researcher’s impression based on the results of the study, based on each specific objective.
Impression based on the KAP are stated

Recommendation

Are made to address the finding of the study (both +ve and –ve) in order to sustain the KAP.
It must be targeted to possible implementers.
It should be based on the findings of the study not on the spurious imagination of the researcher

It is written at the end of the research to put an overview of the sections of the book - It is also called the Abstract
It contains paragraphs, each on

Background and objectives
Main methodology employed
Main finding
Main factors arising in the discussion
Main conclusion made and major recommendations

It is presented at the beginning of the write-up

The list of reference is an acknowledgment of all the literature cited. References are listed based on the Vancouver style.
The list is done bearing in mind that all serially numbered reference will correspond with the context.
Referencing style must be consistent. There should be no cross-referencing
References should contain

Name of the author
Year of publication
Title of the article/test
Name of journal
Edition of journal/text
Volume number
Relevant pages

Note:

Newspaper, mass-media, Wikipedia, are not scientifically allowed to be used
There must be consistency in the referencing style

Appendix include:

A copy of the questionnaire
Ethical clearance
Consent form
Map of the area of study.

Title page— a direct reflection of the front cover; it contains names & matric no. of the authors

Declaration page— to certify that this work has been carried out & supervised.

Practice Questions

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